## Microprocessors Lecture 16

### Memory Devices

We have spent some time looking at interfaces; the other major component in any complete microcomputer system is, of course, the memory. There are, these days, a wide variety of memory devices with wide ranging characteristics in terms of access method, speed and capacity.

Serial access | volatile | Charge coupled | RW
non-volatile | Magnetic tape Magnetic disc Optical disc WORM drive Magnetic bubble | RW RW RO RW RW
Random Access | volatile | Semiconductor | RW
non-volatile | Magnetic core Semiconductor | RW RO

In a serial access device data is stored in such a way that data has to be read in sequence and in the order in which it was written. It is not possible to pick out an individual data byte without reading through to that point or at least reading a block of data and then finding the byte required. To put it more precisely, the access time for a particular byte is variable and depends on what has just been read (or written). For example in a magnetic tape system if the last byte has just been read and we now wish to read the first byte then we may have to wait a few minutes for the tape to be rewound.

A random access device, however, allows access to any data byte individually and the access time is fixed and not dependent on previous read or write operations.

Volatile or non-volatile refers to whether or not the data remains stored when the power is removed. Clearly a volatile device can be made non-volatile by adding emergency power usually in the form of rechargeable batteries which are trickle charged while the power is on. The feasibility of this depends on the power consumption so that it is simple to provide battery back-up for a small semiconductor RAM but it is less feasible for a 1GByte hard disc.

Random access devices are inherently faster then serial devices and so have to be used for the instruction memory in any computer system. Semiconductor memories are used as the main memory for almost all computer systems these days except where operating conditions such as wide temperature variations or high levels of radiation make them unsuitable.

Serial memory devices usually have a much higher packing density because the address depends on position in the stream of data rather than having to be individually coded. The address decoding and data access paths account for the majority of the space on a semiconductor memory chip. Serial devices are therefore used as backing store for large amounts of data or for programs when they are actually being used. Disc stores are the most obvious examples of this although for really large amounts of data magnetic tapes and optical discs (CD ROMS) provide much higher packing densities and the ability to archive data cheaply.

Another distinction between memory devices is whether data can be written and read or just read, referred to as read-only or read- write devices (or wrongly as RAM). Strictly no device can be considered as read-only because if we can't write data into it at some point it would be completely useless. The terminology refers to normal usage in the computer system. Read-only memory is often written at the manufacturing stage or in a special programming device outside the computer system. Sometimes, as with optical discs, the data can be written once but not modified, in other words it is write-once memory. A few devices can be written to slowly but read quickly such as some non-volatile semiconductor memories. These might be referred to as read-mostlymemories.

### Memory devices in a personal computer

A typical personal computer will have four or possibly five distinct types of memory device:-

1. The main memory for storing programs and data while they are in use. This will be semiconductor read write memory. Size will be typically 1 to 16 MBytes. 1MByte=2^10 bytes.
2. Non-volatile RAM - A small area of semiconductor read-write memory with a battery back-up supply in which user settings are stored permanently. Things like the type of printer, the program which should run on switch-on, the date and time - all these are stored here. The battery may also supply a circuit which updates the time. Typical memory sizes are 64 to 512 Bytes.
3. Read-only memory - Most systems have a number of important programs stored in read-only memory so that they are always available. An IBM PC-type machine has BIOS (Binary Operating System). This provides a number of low-level functions like looking at memory locations directly, loading a program from disc and running it, controlling keyboard and screen etc. The DOS or disc operating system is not stored on ROM and has to be loaded from disc every time the computer is switched on. Typical sizes are 64K to 256KBytes.
4. Floppy-disc - This is the commonest backing store used for programs and large amounts of data. It is also a removable medium i.e. discs can be removed thus providing a vast amount of memory although only a limited amount on-line. Typical sizes are 0.5 to 2 MByte. An IBM-like machine must have the DOS disc inserted when the machine is switched on so that MSDOS can be loaded.
5. Hard disc - This is a sealed disc system which provides faster access and higher density than the removable floppy disc. Typical sizes are 100 Mbytes to 1 GBytes.

### Memory devices in a small control microcomputer

The memory requirements of a small dedicated microcomputer or microcontroller are much more modest and will typically be of two types only:-

1. ROM - An area of read-only memory, usually semiconductor, for storing the program, restart and interrupt vectors and process constants. Clearly it is important that the program should not be corrupted under any circumstances and be available instantly on power-up. Typically 2K to 48KBytes.
2. RAM - An area of read-write memory for storing variables, readings from transducers etc. Typically 128 to 8KBytes.

### Read-Only Memory

There are a wide variety of semiconductor read-only memory devices depending upon the type of chips used in the system and the method of installing the information in the chip. The system may be constructed using bipolar or MOS transistors and within these classes there are different types of circuit.

ECL - ECL logic uses bipolar transistors in a current switching non-saturating configuration which results in very high speed. The basic circuits are complex, however, which results in poor packing density. ECL memories are therefore relatively small. Very high power dissipation also limits number of devices on chip and special cooling arrangements may be necessary.

TTL - uses bipolar transistors in more conventional circuits. Speed id high but density not very high because of the complexity and number of processing steps involved in making bipolar devices.

NMOS - uses MOS transistors in very simple circuits which results in very high packing densities. The capacitance of MOS devices limits speeds although they can sometimes approach those of TTL.

CMOS - uses N and P type MOS transistors in complementary and symmetrical circuits resulting in very low power dissipation. Speeds are lower than NMOS and because of more complex processing packing density is also lower.

All the devices in a system frequently use the same technology. This avoids problems of matching voltage and current levels and means that devices have comparable speeds. Logic levels for CMOS and NMOS can usually be matched to TTL levels thus allowing mixing where necessary e.g. CMOS low power RAM for battery backed-up memory in an otherwise NMOS system or TTL address decoders to reduce gate delays in an NMOS system.

ROM, in common with most semiconductor memory, is arranged in matrix form where a ROW of data is selected by a subset of the address lines and then the COLUMN in which the data bit is selected by the remaining address lines.

In the example below, the matrix is also split between 8 planes where each plane supplies one bit to the data bus.

### ROM parameters

To access data in a ROM, the parameters given by the manufacturer in the data sheet should be observed.

One example of timing for a 6800-compatible ROM is given below. Note that the precharge time is not always required with later ROMs and that the access time alone does not indicate how often data may be read from the ROM. The cycle time is the shortest time between successive reads of the ROM.

PARAMETER | min | max | units
--- | --- | --- | ---
Tcyc TCE Tacc Toff TAH TAS Tp | Cycle time /CE pulse width /CE access time Output turn-off delay Address & CS hold time to /CE Address & CS setup time to /CE /CE precharge time | 400 250 100 0 150 | 250 75 | ns ns ns ns ns ns ns

### Mask-Programmed ROM

Thus the ROM in a system will normally match the rest of the system and a typical MOS ROM will have a single device with gate connected or not to store each bit of data. The contents of the ROM will be defined when the device is made usually by the last layer of connections which are defined by a mask. Thus these are known as mask-programmed ROMS. Setting up the mask is a fairly expensive process and will typically cost several thousand pounds. The chips themselves are simple and cheap and so this approach is cost effective when many thousands of the same chip are required e.g. for the program in a washing-machine. These devices can be very large because of their simplicity but there is little point in making them more then 64kBytes. The number of pins on the package also limits the number of address lines. Errors in the program are clearly very expensive so for early production and low-volume applications an alternative is necessary and this is provided by the programmable ROM or PROM.

### Programmable ROM

Various types of PROM are available, some are once only devices such as the fusible-link PROM where a minute fuse is blown in locations where a zero is to be stored. A more common device is the EPROM which functions be trapping charge on the buried gate of an MOS transistor by tunneling. The charge changes the threshold level of the device which can result in a zero being read instead of a one. The charge can be removed by exposing the device to high intensity ultra-violet light which gives the electrons enough energy to tunnel back thus allowing the device to be reprogrammed. The device can be reprogrammed many times and will retain data for up to 100 years if it is kept away from sources of ultra-violet light such as fluorescent lights. These devices can be up to 128KBytes in size although 2,4,or 8 KBytes are also common.

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